Monthly Archives: July 2022

Two-sided viewpoint

A two-sided viewpoint is a viewpoint applied to an object o which takes into account both poles of a given duality. A two-sided viewpoint is opposed to a one-sided viewpoint, where only one pole of a duality is considered. On the other hand, in the two-sided viewpoint, both poles of a duality are taken into account and applied to a given object o. Thus, if the poles A and Ā of a matrix of concepts are taken into account, it will be a two-sided viewpoint.

Franceschi, P., “Une classe de concepts” (in english), Semiotica, vol. 139 (1-4), 2002, pages 211-226.

Franceschi, P., “Éléments d’un contextualisme dialectique ” (in english), in Liber Amicorum Pascal Engel, J. Dutant, G. Fassio & A. Meylan (éd.), Université de Genève, 2014, p. 581-608.

Ambiguous images ▣ Arbitrary focus ▣ Bistable perception ▣ Complementarity relationship ▣ Conflict resolution ▣ Conflict resolution with matrices of concepts ▣ Conflict types relating to matrices of concepts ▣ Contrary relationship ▣ Courage ▣ Dialectical contextualism ▣ Dialectical monism ▣ Dialectical monism in Aztec philosophy ▣ Dialectical monism in Heraclitus ▣ Dichotomic analysis ▣ Dichotomic analysis applied to paradox resolution ▣ Dichotomous reasoning ▣ Disqualification of one pole ▣ Disqualification of the positive ▣ Doctrine of the mean ▣ Doomsday argument ▣ Dualities ▣ Dual poles ▣ Extreme opposition ▣ General cognitive distortions ▣ Instance of one-sidedness bias ▣ Liar paradox ▣ Matrix of concepts ▣ Maximization ▣ Mental filter ▣ Minimization ▣ Bistable cognition ▣ Omission of the neutral ▣ One-sidedness bias ▣ One-sided viewpoint ▣ Opposition relationship ▣ Principle of dialectical indifference ▣ Requalification into the other pole ▣ Reference class ▣ Reference class problem ▣ Reference class problem in philosophical paradoxes ▣ Reference class problem in the Doomsday argument ▣ Reference class problem in Hempel’s paradox ▣ Reference class problem in the surprise examination paradox ▣ Selective abstraction ▣ Sorites paradox ▣ Specific cognitive distortions ▣ Surprise examination paradox ▣ System of taxa ▣ Two-sided viewpoint ▣ Viewpoint of a duality ▣ Viewpoint of a pole

Matrix of concepts

The matrix of concepts is a structure that includes six concepts, which is suitable for modeling many common concepts, such as: courage, recklessness, irresolution, eclecticism, superficiality, clemency, instability, selfishness, objectivity, frankness, brusqueness, altruism, etc. Of the six concepts in the matrix:

two are neutral: A⁰ and Ā⁰
two are positive: A⁺ and Ā⁺
two are negative: A^– and Ā^–

These six concepts constitute the canonical poles of the matrix.

The six concepts of the matrix are in particular relationships with each other. Thus:

the neutral concepts A⁰ and Ā⁰ are dual
the positive concept A⁺ and the negative concept Ā^– are opposite (or contrary); similarly, the negative concept A^– and the positive concept Ā⁺ are opposite (or contrary)
the positive concepts A⁺ and Ā⁺ are complementary
lastly, the negative concepts A^– and Ā^– are extreme opposites

In the above instance of matrix of concepts:

the propensity to take risks and the propensity to avoid risks are dual
audacity and cowardice are contrary, opposite; in the same way, temerity and prudence are contrary, opposite
audacity and prudence are complementary
temerity and cowardice are extreme opposites

Moreover, the three concepts located on the left of the matrix constitute a half-matrix: it is the half-matrix associated with the pole A. In the same way, the three concepts located on the right of the matrix constitute the half-matrix associated to the pole Ā.

Franceschi, P., “Une classe de concepts” (in english), Semiotica, vol. 139 (1-4), 2002, pages 211-226.

Dichotomic analysis

Dichotomous analysis is a technique of analysis that tends to consider an object o from the point of view of a given duality, and to distinguish two different situations, each of which corresponds to one of the two poles of the duality considered. Examples of dualities are: Quantitative/Qualitative, Absolute/Relative, Static/Dynamic, Diachronic/Synchronic, Extension/Restriction.

The dichotomous analysis is directly linked to the very statement of the principle of dialectical indifference. Its use responds to the concern not to be vulnerable to one-sidedness bias and to demonstrate, on the contrary, a two-sided viewpoint.

Franceschi, P., “Éléments d’un contextualisme dialectique ” (in english), in Liber Amicorum Pascal Engel, J. Dutant, G. Fassio & A. Meylan (éd.), Université de Genève, 2014, p. 581-608.

Dialectical monism

Dialectical monism is a philosophical doctrine that tends to consider that objects present an intrinsic unity, which results from the union of the dual poles that characterize them. The difference with monism in general lies in the fact that unity results in dialectical monism, from the union of the dual or opposite poles which are inherent to the objects.

In the ancient Aztec philosophy, we find a form of dialectical monism.

In the same way, a form of dialectical monism is present in the thought of Heraclitus.

Specific cognitive distortions

The specific cognitive distortions are instances of the general cognitive distortions (dichotomous reasoning, disqualification of one pole, arbitrary focus, omission of the neutral, requalification into the other pole) that apply to a given duality and/or a given reference class.

For example, arbitrary focus is a general distortion. And mental filter is a specific cognitive distortion that consists in an instance of arbitrary focus that applies to the positive/negative duality.

In the same manner, the disqualification of one pole is the general cognitive distortion which leads to give an arbitrary priority to one of the poles of a given duality. And the disqualification of the positive is then a specific cognitive distortion that consists in the disqualification of one of the poles applied to the positive/negative duality.

Franceschi P., Compléments pour une théorie des distorsions cognitives (in english), Journal de Thérapie Comportementale et Cognitive, 2007, 17, 2, 84-88.

General cognitive distortions

The general cognitive distortions are cognitive distortions of the following types:

that apply to whatever duality or reference class.

General cognitive distortions give rise to specific cognitive distortions when they concern a given duality. For example, arbitrary focus whan it applies to the positive/negative duality corresponds to mental filter.

Franceschi P., Compléments pour une théorie des distorsions cognitives (in english), Journal de Thérapie Comportementale et Cognitive, 2007, 17, 2, 84-88.

Disqualification of the positive

The disqualification of the positive is a specific instance of the disqualification of one pole, which applies to the Positive/Negative duality. The subject grants an arbitrary priority in the negative pole of the positive/negative duality, in order to qualify the elements of a given reference class. It consists then in the fact of attributing more importance to the negative pole rather than to the positive one, in the lack of objective motivation.

Disqualification of the positive is then a specific cognitive distortion that consists in an instance of the disqualification of one pole applied to the Positive/Negative duality.

For example, a specific instance of disqualification of the positive applies to the reference class including the facts and events of the subject’s life. The subject tends then to ignore positive events, by considering that they do not count, for any reason.

Franceschi P., Compléments pour une théorie des distorsions cognitives (in english), Journal de Thérapie Comportementale et Cognitive, 2007, 17, 2, 84-88.

Mental filter

Mental filter (or selective abstraction) is a specific instance of arbitrary focus, which relates to the reference class of the facts of the subject’s life, and to the Positive/Negative duality. It consists in the fact of choosing one detail with a negative connotation and to focalise on it. Suchlike, the subject sees only this detail, and his/her view of reality is darkened because it is entirely tinted with this particular event.

Franceschi P., Compléments pour une théorie des distorsions cognitives (in english), Journal de Thérapie Comportementale et Cognitive, 2007, 17, 2, 84-88.

Selective abstraction

Selective abstraction (or mental filter) is a specific instance of arbitrary focus, which relates to the reference class of the facts of the subject’s life, and to the Positive/Negative duality. It consists in the fact of choosing one detail with a negative connotation and to focalise on it. Suchlike, the subject sees only this detail, and his/her view of reality is darkened because it is entirely tinted with this particular event.

Franceschi P., Compléments pour une théorie des distorsions cognitives (in english), Journal de Thérapie Comportementale et Cognitive, 2007, 17, 2, 84-88.

Arbitrary focus

Arbitrary focus is a type of general cognitive distortion that consists in arbitrary focusing on a modality of a given duality. In the present context, this type of general cognitive distortion leads to favour one taxon in the subject’s system of taxa, by ignoring all the others. In arbitrary focusing, the taxon being discussed is present in the subject’s system of taxa, and is affected to an unique element of the reference class. There is eclipsing (in general temporary) of others taxa and other elements of the reference class, so that the subject is haunted by this specific element.

A particular instance of this type of general cognitive distortion, relates to the reference class of the facts of the subject’s life, and to the Positive/Negative duality. It is a specific cognitive distortion, which consists in focusing on a negative event of the subject’s life. It is then one of the classical cognitive distortions, defined as selective abstraction (Mental filter), which consists in the fact of choosing one detail with a negative connotation and to focalise on it. Suchlike, the subject sees only this detail, and his/her view of reality is darkened because it is entirely tinted with this particular event.

Franceschi P., Compléments pour une théorie des distorsions cognitives (in english), Journal de Thérapie Comportementale et Cognitive, 2007, 17, 2, 84-88.

Disqualification of one pole

The disqualification of one pole is the general cognitive distortion which leads to grant an arbitrary priority in one of the poles of a given duality, in order to qualify the elements of a given reference class. It consists then in the fact of attributing more importance to one of the poles rather than to the other one, in the lack of objective motivation. The taxa corresponding to one of the poles of a given duality are lacking in the patient’s system of taxa. So, the subject sees things only through the prism of pole A (respectively Ā), by ignoring completely the viewpoint of the opposed pole Ā (respectively A).

Formally, the disqualification of one of the poles leads to consider only the E_i such that d[E_i] ≤ (respectivelyd[E_i] ≥ 0), by ignoring any events such thatd[E_i] > 0 (respectivelyd[E_i] < 0).

An instance of the disqualification of one of the poles consists in the disqualification of the positive. The latter can be analysed as a specific instance of the disqualification of one of the poles, which applies to the Positive/Negative duality and to the reference class including the facts and events of the subject’s life. The subject tends then to ignore positive events, by considering that they do not count, for any reason.

Another instance of the disqualification of one pole also applies to the Positive/Negative duality and to the reference class which comprises the character’s traits of the subject. This one completely ignores his/her positive character’s traits (qualities) and only directs his/her attention to his/her negative character’s traits (defects). This encourages then him/her to conclude that he/she “is worth nothing”, that he/she is “a failure”.

Franceschi P., Compléments pour une théorie des distorsions cognitives (in english), Journal de Thérapie Comportementale et Cognitive, 2007, 17, 2, 84-88.

Dichotomous reasoning

Dichotomous reasoning (or all-or-nothing thinking) can be defined as a general cognitive distortion which leads the subject to consider a given reference class only according to the two extreme taxa which relate to every pole of a given duality. With this type of reasoning, the subject ignores completely the presence of degrees or of intermediate steps. In his/her system of taxa, the subject has as well the two extreme taxa corresponding to poles A and Ā. The defect in that way of considering things is that facts or objects corresponding to intermediary taxa are not taken into account. So it results from it a reasoning without nuances nor gradation, which proves to be maladapted to properly apprehend the diversity of human situations. Formally, dichotomous reasoning consists in taking into account only the elements of the reference class such as|d[E_i]| = 1, ord[E₁] = 1 ord[E₁₁] = -1, by ignoring all the others.

Franceschi P., Compléments pour une théorie des distorsions cognitives (in english), Journal de Thérapie Comportementale et Cognitive, 2007, 17, 2, 84-88.

System of taxa

The subject’s system of taxa consists of a taxonomy which allows the subject to evaluate and to classify the elements of the reference class, according to the criterion corresponding to a given duality A/Ā. These taxa can be considered as “what can see” the subject. It consists of a system of values that is inherent to the patient or of a filter through which the subject “sees” the elements of the reference class, i.e. the phenomena or the objects of reality.

The above figure represents an optimal system of taxa. The latter t is composed of 11 spheres which represent each a given taxon. The system of taxa is optimal, because all taxa are present.

It is worth noting that if the subject does not have some taxa, he cannot see nor count the corresponding elements. For example, if he/she lacks the taxa of the duality A/Ā corresponding to pole A, he cannot see the corresponding elements. In the same way, if the subject has no neutral taxon in his/her system of taxa, he cannot see the neutral elements of the reference class. More formally, let us consider then a series of n elements E₁, E₂, …, E_n such that each of them has, in a objective way, a degree d[E_i] in a duality A/Ā comprised between -1 and 1 (d ∈ [-1, +1]). We can consider then a series including 11 elements, E₁, E₂, …, E₁₁, which present an objective increasing degree (the choice of 11 elements is here arbitrary, and any other number would also do the job).

Franceschi P., Compléments pour une théorie des distorsions cognitives (in english), Journal de Thérapie Comportementale et Cognitive, 2007, 17, 2, 84-88.

Reference class

The reference class is constituted by a group of phenomena or objects. Several examples can be given here:

the class composed of the events and facts of the subject’s life
the class of the future events of the subject’s life
the class constituted by all the parts of the subject’s body
the class which is made up of the subject’s character’s traits

Franceschi P., Compléments pour une théorie des distorsions cognitives (in english), Journal de Thérapie Comportementale et Cognitive, 2007, 17, 2, 84-88.

Extreme opposition

An extreme opposition relationship exists within a matrix of concepts, between the two negative concepts, i.e. A^– and Ā^–. This relationship is the counterpart of the complementarity relationship, which concerns the positive concepts A⁺ and Ā⁺. Two different terms are used to designate these two relationships, because the notion of complementarity has a positive nuance, while the extreme opposition has a depreciative nuance.

For example, the concept of temerity is the extreme opposite of the concept of cowardice.

Franceschi, P., “Une classe de concepts” (in english), Semiotica, vol. 139 (1-4), 2002, pages 211-226.

Maximization

Maximization is a general cognitive distortion that consists of assigning to an element of a given reference class, a taxon according to the A/Ā duality criterion that turns out to be greater than its objective value. Maximization is among the classically defined cognitive distortions. The subjective degree Δ[E] that is assigned by the subject to an event E is significantly greater than its objective degree d[E], so that |Δ[E]| > |d[E]|.

Franceschi P., Compléments pour une théorie des distorsions cognitives (in english), Journal de Thérapie Comportementale et Cognitive, 2007, 17, 2, 84-88.

Minimization

Minimization is a general cognitive distortion that consists of assigning to an element of a given reference class, a taxon according to the A/Ā duality criterion that turns out to be lower than its objective value. Minimization is among the classically defined cognitive distortions. The subjective degree Δ[E] that is assigned by the subject to an event E is significantly lower than its objective degree d[E], so that |Δ[E]| < |d[E]|.

Franceschi P., Compléments pour une théorie des distorsions cognitives (in english), Journal de Thérapie Comportementale et Cognitive, 2007, 17, 2, 84-88.

Complementarity relationship

Within a concept matrix, a complementarity relationship exists between the concepts A⁺ and Ā⁺. For example, the concept of courage is the complementary of the concept of caution.

The idea of complementarity has a positive, appreciative nuance, and for this reason, the relationship of complementarity within a matrix of concepts is reserved for concepts of a positive nature, namely A⁺ and Ā⁺. Conversely, the relation of extreme opposition, which includes a negative, devaluing nuance, is reserved for concepts of a negative nature, i.e. A^– and Ā^–.

Franceschi, P., “Une classe de concepts” (in english), Semiotica, vol. 139 (1-4), 2002, pages 211-226.

Contrary relationship

A contrary (or opposition) relationship exists within a matrix of concepts, between:

on the one hand the concepts A+ and Ā-
and on the other hand, the concepts A- and Ā+

For example, the concept of courage is the contrary of the concept of cowardice. And similarly, the concept of temerity is the contrary of the concept of prudence.

Franceschi, P., “Une classe de concepts” (in english), Semiotica, vol. 139 (1-4), 2002, pages 211-226.

Opposition relationship

An opposition (or contrary) relationship exists within a matrix of concepts, between:

on the one hand the concepts A+ and Ā-
and on the other hand, the concepts A- and Ā+

For example, the concept of courage is the opposite of the concept of cowardice. And similarly, the concept of temerity is the opposite of the concept of prudence.

Franceschi, P., “Une classe de concepts” (in english), Semiotica, vol. 139 (1-4), 2002, pages 211-226.

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Paul Franceschi

Philosophy and Concepts

Monthly Archives: July 2022

Two-sided viewpoint

Matrix of concepts

Dichotomic analysis

Dialectical monism

Specific cognitive distortions

General cognitive distortions

Disqualification of the positive

Mental filter

Selective abstraction

Arbitrary focus

Disqualification of one pole

Dichotomous reasoning

System of taxa

Reference class

Extreme opposition

Maximization

Minimization

Complementarity relationship

Contrary relationship

Opposition relationship